Analysing isolation of DNA plasmid and Agragose of gel electophoresis

Analysing isolation of DNA plasmid and Agragose of gel electophoresis Introduction (a) The aim of this experiment was to successfully isolate a DNA plasmid from E.Coli cells (Escherichia coli). We then use commonly performed a method commonly used in biochemistry and molecular biology called agarose gel electrophoresis. This is used to separate DNA and RNA fragments according to length are used to estimate the size and charge of the DNA and RNA fragments or to separate protein by size. In this procedure as stated above, we used e.coli as these are plasmid containing cells. These cells were placed in a buffer and mixed with a solution of 1% (w/v) SDS (sodium dodecyl sulphate) which was mixed with sodium hydroxide. The alkaline solution (12.6PH) causes the molecular weight increases this causes it to become like chromosomal DNA. Using alkaline lyses is based on differential denaturation of chromosomal and plasmid DNA in order to separate the two. The double stranded plasmid and chromosomal DNA is converted to single stranded DNA due to the lyses of the cells which solubilises protein and denatures the DNA. Subsequent neutralization is potassium acetate allows only covalently closed DNA plasmid DNA to reanneal and stay solubilized. Chromosomal and plasmid DNA precipitate in a complex formed with potassium and SDS which is removed by centrifugation. Protein dodecyl sulphate complexes are precipitated die to it being insoluble in water. When centrifugation neutralizes the lysine it yields to a minuscule supernatant fraction that contains plasmid DNA a network of chromosomal DNA and protein Plasmid DNA is concentrated by from the supernatant by ethanol precipitation. Plasmid DNA isolated by alkaline lyses is suitable for most analyses and cloning procedures without further purification however if the isolated plasmid DNA is sequenced and additional purification step such as phenol extraction is used. (b) The aim of Agarose gel electrophoresis is to analyse the plasmid DNA that was extracted from the procedure before. The technique of electrophoresis is based on the fact that DNA is negatively charged at neutral pH due to its phosphate backbone. And like any other biological macromolecules can move within an electrical field. The rate of the DNA slows down when its moves towards opposite poles because of the agarose. The agarose gel is a buffer solution this is used to maintain the required pH and salt concentration. The agarose forms hole or wells in the buffer solution and the DNA inserted in through the holes to move toward the positive pole. As mentioned before the agarose gel slows down the rate of DNA so the smaller DNA moves faster than the larger molecules of DNA as the smaller ones fit through the whole easier. This causes the DNA to be separated by size and can be seen visually. To make the electrophoresis to function and separate DNA molecules it must contain an electro phoresis chamber.and power supply, combs which are placed in the chamber this is how wells are formed when agarose is placed in the gel, Trays that contains a special gel that comes in many sizes and and have UV-properties combs which is how wells are formed when agarose is placed in the gel, Electrophoresis buffer, Loading buffer, which has a thick consistancy (e.g. glycerol) so the DNA can be easily placed in the wells and one or two tracking dyes, these travel in the gel and help visualize how the process is being carried out and to moniter how far electrophoresis undergone. Ethidium bromide, is a dye used to stain the nucleic acids.  . Tran illuminator  (an ultraviolet light box), which is used to visualize ethidium bromide-stained DNA in gels.   Method for plasmid isolation 1.5 ml of culture that contains E.coli cells containing the plasmid pUC118 was inserted into an Eppendorf tube. This was then centrifuged at 13000 rpm for two minutes The liquid contained in the Eppendorf tube was discarded carefully by using a pipette and then inverting the tube on a test tube to remove remaining drops of the liquid without removing the bacterial pellet 200 micro-liters of solution A was added to the bacterial pellet. This ensured that the suspension is homogenized (mixtures are well separated 400 micro-liters of solution B was then added and mixed well these solutions contain the SDS and sodium hydroxide. This neutralizes the solutions 300 micro-liters of solution C which contains the potassium acetate which was also mixed and then was incubated on ice for 10 minutes This mixture was the centrifuged at 13000rpm for 5 minutes 750 micro-liters of this supernatant was transferred to a new Eppendorf tube whilst ensuring none of the precipitate was interfered with 10 micro-liters if RNAse solution was added to a duplicate tube and labeled as R+ 450 micro-liters of isopropanol was added to each test tube and mixed well This was then centrifuged at 13000rpm for 5 minutes The supernatants were then carefully removed and the DNA was retained 400 micro-liters of ethanol was added and allowed to stand for a minute it allow the salts to dissolve the liquid was carefully removed so as not to remove the DNA precipitate. The sample was then allowed to dry at room temperature Each pellet was then dissolved in 10 micro-liters of TE buffer Q1 The viscosity after 400 micro-liters of solution B was added and mixed a low viscosity was observed as it had a very watery texture. Q2 there was no viscosity after the transfer of 750 micro-liters of supernatant to a new eppendorf (a) Agarose gel electrophoresis The sample obtained from the experimental procedure above were then examined using the method of agarose gel electrophoresis The RNAse treated and untreated plasmids were examined. 10 micro-liters of loading buffer was added to 10 micro-liters of DNA for each sample The samples containing DNA mixed with loading buffer were then pipetted into the sample wells, and a current was applied. This was carried out for 30 minutes It was clear that the current was flowing as bubbles were observed to be coming off the electrodes. The negatively charged DNA migrated towards the positive electrode at the distal end, (which is usually colored red) It was analyzed that the smaller DNA molecules travelled quickly through the gel which showed that the procedure was carried out successfully as the DNA was separated according to size Results/ Discussion (a) Isolation of DNA plasmid The DNA plasmid was successfully extracted from the E.coli cells and then the DNA was the successfully separated according to size by using the agarose gel electrophoresis method. Solution A contains 25 mM of Tris-HCL (pH 8.0)50 EDTA. Tris is a buffering agent this maintains a constant pH. The EDTA is used to protect the DNA from DNAses which are degradative enzymes; the EDTA also binds divalent cations that are necessary for DNAse activity. The solution B contains SDS which is a detergent and NaOH. This neutralizes the solution, the alkaline mixture also causes the cells to rupture and the SDS the lipid membrane is broken apart and the cellular proteins are solubilized, NaOH converts the DNA into a single strands which is caused by denaturation. The solution C contains potassium acetate (pH 4.3) the acetic acid neutralizes the pH, allowing the DNA strands to renature. The potassium acetate is added its causes the SDS to precipitate, along with the cellular debris. The  E. coli chromosomal DNA is also precipitated. The plasmid DNA remains in the solution. The viscosity of this is very high as it has a very gel like texture. When the supernatant is placed in a new eppendorf tube after 5 minutes of centrifuge this causes the plasmid DNA to separate from the cellular debris and chromosomal DNA in the pellet. The isopropanol is then added this pulls the plasmid out and causes it to precipitate nucleic acids. After centrifuge a small white pellet was observed at the bottom of the tube after the supernatant was carefully removed this further purifies the plasmid DNA from contaminants. 400microliters of ethanol was added this washed the residual salt and SDS from the DNA. All these changes that were observed after the addition of these solutions were expected as they are what help us extract the DNA plasmid for an end product. (b) Agarose gel electrophoresis After placing the DNA plasmid in the wells electrophoresis was carried out. The results were then obtained and recorded. The size of the DNA fragment is determined from its electrophoretic mobility. The DNA fragments of know molecular weight markers are run on the gel and a graph of log MW against migration distance is drawn. There are three different forms of agarose DNA first theres the open circular plasmid DNA this is the first band that occurs on the picture. The circular plasmid is a  double-stranded  circular  DNA  molecule  that has been nicked in one of the strands to allow the release of any super-helical turns present in the  molecule. The open circular plasmid migrates more slowly than a linear or super-coiled  molecule  of the same size this is due to associated differences in  conformation, or shape, of the  molecules. this is why it is the first band that occurs on the picture result. Linear DNA has free ends, either because both strands have been cut, or because the DNA was linear  in vivo. The rate of migration for small linear fragments is directly proportional to the voltage applied at low voltages. At a specified, low voltage, the migration rate of small linear DNA fragments is a function of their length. Large linear fragments (over 20kb or so) migrate at a certain fixed rate regardless of length. This is because the molecules resperate, with the bulk of the molecule following the leading end through the gel matrix.  Restriction digests  are frequently used to analyse purified plasmids. These enzymes specifically break the DNA at certain short sequences. The resulting linear fragments form bands after  gel electrophoresis. It is possible to purify certain fragments by cutting the bands out of the gel and dissolving the gel to release the DNA fragments. This is neither fast nor slow in comparison to the other DNA plasmid. The super-coiled Plasmid DNA normally occurs naturally, there is super-coiling in DNA only if there is a replication of a DNA plasmid and this occurs for a small space of time and that is removed by cutting the DNA by specific enzymes, this is part of DNA replication mechinary. This type of DNA plasmid is the fastest as it is the last band shown out of the three this is Because of its tight conformation. The picture above shows the results obtained from the agarose gel electrophoresis. The lane numbers are marked over the wells. The lane before lane 1 that is titled M is the molecular weight marker. All three forms of plasmid DNA is present in this result, the open circular, the linear and the supercoiled. There is an extra band of RNA present however not clearly visible this is because the RNA fragments migrated ahead of dye front as diffuse a band, the ribonuclease gets rid of this band, a blue tracking dye cause the black smudge under the DNA plasmid and beneath that is the barley visable RNA. RNA is very unstable under these conditions, as a result RNA can be completely degraded befor the ribonuclease has been added. It can be seen that DNA is present more in one band then another, however the one with the less amount could have a bigger fragment. There seems to be logarithmic relationship between the size of the DNA fragment and the distance it travels on the gel. A standered curve can be made if we measure the length the bands in different lanes travelled if the fragment sizes are known. The more points plotted and the larger the separation there is on the gel, the results will be more accurate. Conclusion The experimental procedures carried out were a success, the DNA plasmid was obtained and the agarose gel electrophoresis resulted with in a clear picture as shown and outlined above, of the DNA being successfully separated. The uses of purified plasma in DNA research is for molecular cloning.

Is Rawlss Critique Of Utilitarianism Fair Philosophy Essay

Is Rawlss Critique Of Utilitarianism Fair Philosophy Essay The question we are going to deal with immediately draw my attention; as Rawls work on justice not only turns out to be theoretically relevant, but even particular considering the time it was published, it results being determinant from a historic point of view. Indeed A theory of justice was written in 1971, in these years as we know cold war reached its climax and contrast between the Soviet Union and the United States was severe. These conflicts implied not only a political (and fortunately not military) conflict, but at its deepest layer a difference in ideology, beliefs, thought. As well known the soviet model had its roots in Karl Marxs (1818-1883) communist philosophy while the western countries found their attachment mostly in utilitarianism. These philosophies oppose in its assumptions and appear not to be compatible witch each other. What Rawls proposes us is an innovating solution to conjugate social justice and utilitarianism in an innovating if not revolutionary theory of justice. He is considered to be the father of the third way among a centralized economy and laissez-faire. As previously anticipated the theory of justice also has a fundamental theoretical value as it marks the turning point in some very important and discussed conceptual differences which became part of nowadays political agenda. Rawls famous theory of justice criticized utilitarianism at its roots. After a brief introduction about the topic of discussion, my attention is going to focus on the basic ideas of utilitarianism as it is the philosophical theory which opposes most to Rawls theory of justice. We will then analyze Rawls attack to utilitarian philosophy as explained in his book: A theory of justice. Furthermore we will place our attention on the reasons why Rawlss judges utilitarianism wrong, and on other arguments against it. John Rawlss thought John Rawls is widely considered one of the most innovative and influential thinker of the twentieth century. Put in Amartya Sens words:By far the most influential and I believe the most important theory of justice to be presented in this century has been John Rawls Justice as fairness (Sen, 1992:p. 75) He was born in 1921 in the city of Baltimore, made his studies in Princeton and Oxford, before becoming a professor in one of the most known universities of the United States: Harvard. He is mostly known through his famous book A theory of justice (1971). The philosopher claims that justice is the first requisite of social institutions, just in the same way as the pursuit of truth is the final aim of any philosophy. His basic claim is that as a theory a needs to be discarded or at least changed in its missing parts if it is not true, in the same way institutions or laws have to be abolished or reformed if they are not fair. He goes on saying that even if society as a whole might profit from certain institution, they cannot be accepted and left in place if even only one person gets an unfair treatment as a consequence of their operation. Each person possesses an inviolability founded on justice that even the welfare of society as a whole cannot override. For this reason justice denies that the loss of freedom for some is made right by a greater good shared by others. It does not allow that the sacrifices imposed on a few are outweighed by the larger sum of advantages enjoyed by many.( Rawls, John A Theory of Justice  (Belknap Press of Harvard University Press), 1971, p 3.) As he defined his idea about justice, he wanted to give a rational foundation to it. He wanted to ensure that his justice assumptions were rational and shared by all members of society. Given the fact that individuals are different and have different aims in life it is necessary to find some principle which could be agreed on by all members. The way by which people could find a general agreement is very well known in philosophy and social sciences as public law. What is being referred to is the idea of original position and veil of ignorance. Part of its great success is due to the fascinating representation given by the author. He imagines a so called original position in which the single individuals decide the rules which will govern society. What is crucial is the fact that they do this choice in absolute ignorance concerning some relevant information of their future lives in society. The agreement is so being made in a condition of a veil of ignorance. This avoids the fact that some which might be born in a very rich family would obviously be against high income taxes to transfer some wealth to the worse off. The poor one on the other hand would definitely welcome such taxes as they could profit from them. The people making the choice are thus presented as rational and not interested in others. No one could get an advantage from the choice of certain principles which would advantage a certain category, as they would not know which role they are going to have in society. To sum up we can say that the veil of ignorance has to exclude people from the knowledge of facts which would bring them to have conflicts. Al the parties are equal in this position, indeed everyone would have the same rights in proposing rules and accepting them. The outcome of this decision leads to a fair agreement because it is conducted in fair conditions. This is the reason why this theory is known as justice as fairness. He states that the philosopher which contributed most to the development of his theory has been Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), since Kants ethic is based on the personal choice of free, rational and equal individuals. Therefore he arrives to claim that the principles of justice are to be seen as categorical imperatives in the Kantian way. Indeed by categorical imperative Kant means these moral principles which are to be rationally respected and accepted from a free and rational individual. Opposed to these we find hypothetical imperatives which are the ones which aim at certain specific goals. Concerning the principles which have to be expected from the decision take under the veil of ignorance, we should not consider them as defined principles for actions but as general guide lines for practical political decisions. It is to be noticed that some critics might emerge at this point, authors like Sen criticized the fact that exactly these principles would emerge from the contracting under the veil of ignorance: The outcome might be a different one. The first principle states the following: Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with a similar liberty for others. (Rawls, 1971) What is exactly meant as basic liberties has to be defined more precisely, indeed they are: a) The active and passive right to vote; the first refers to the possibility to choose a political actor according to our preferences (what is commonly understood as right to vote). The second one (passive right to vote) refers to the fact that we have the possibility to candidate for elections and possibility be elected. b) Liberty of conscience, which is basically the faculty to choose or decide by your own, your future life, your way of being and your own destiny. c) Freedom of speech and assembly, so the possibility to express your own ideas and make them public even if they do not fit and are not coherent with the current political situation and its majoritys ideas. The freedom of assembly indeed refers to the possibility to arrange political assemblies to discuss political and practical issues. d) Freedom to personal propriety, which is to be understood as the possibility to have the personal private propriety on your goods (although he states that the private propriety of means of production is not necessarily to be seen as a primary good). e) Freedom from arbitrary arrest, which means the fact that the public power has not the freedom to arbitrary (so without a reason), arrest individuals because they might oppose or disagree with the public power itself. The second principle: Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that (a) They are to be of the greatest benefit of the least-advantaged members of society, consistent with the just savings principle (the difference principle). (b) Offices and positions must be open to everyone under conditions of  fair equality of opportunity (Rawls, 1971, p.302) The first part of the second principle (a) holds the idea that the first goal in a choice should be to maximize the least well off rather than to maximize in general. (Maximin) This means that arrangements which imply inequalities might only be accepted if they increase the position of the poorest too. It is well explained by this graphical representation: C:Documents and SettingsRoberta SimeoneDesktoprawls function.jpg This graph is to be interpreted as if there were two individuals; giving freedom to our imagination let us call them: 1 and 2. The social utility of both is to be measured on the 45 degree line in the point of interception with the L curve. A few of them are marked in increasing utility order to give a general idea, I Already this argument (Maximin) proves the effectiveness of Rawls critique to utilitarianism because it gives attention to the distribution of wealth rather than considering merely the sum of all the agents utilities. This will be clear in the paragraph about utilitarianism. The justification for this argument is due to the fact that the randomness of the condition in which one is born is not linked to a moral entitlement. For instance the financial conditions of ones family or even the talents one has are merely casual. That is why it is right to increase first the worse off who had been unlucky in the lottery of life. Utilitarianism Utilitarianism was mainly born by Jeremy Benthams (1748-1832) work. His biggest innovation compared to previous thinkers was to found moral philosophy on a rational basis. This reflects the theoretical innovations of his time, which is the scientific method brought by enlightenment. He therefore tried to make ethics an analytical science which can be proven by logical and mathematical principles. This philosophy is founded on the basic idea that actions should only be judged from the value of its outcome. The key point if we assume this way of thinking, becomes to define precisely how we might value the effects of our actions. We could try to value different things which we generally assumed as good, such as happiness, satisfaction, wealth or even simple pleasure. Not giving any value judgment about this methodology to chose the right action, it is already possible to note that this part is particularly problematic as all these things turn out to be extremely difficult (if not impossible) to measure. The general principle is the so called utility, according to utilitarian philosophers it can be measured by calculation and thus it allows us to compare between actions leading to higher and lower utility outcomes. Bentham believes it is possible to possible to calculate pain and pleasure by using equations, this should be the way to define utility according to the duration and the strength of a feeling (positive or negative). Founding this principle of utility is a general assumption believed to be true by utilitarianism, it is the fact that any activity leads to two basic feelings, which are pleasure and its opposite: pain. Judgment about how to act should only be left to these two. In Benthams words: that property in any object, whereby it tends to produce benefit, advantage, pleasure, good, or happinessorto prevent the happening of mischief, pain, evil, or unhappiness  (Jeremy Bentham Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation  ,1789). As we saw in this paragraph this basic understanding of utilitarianism does not allow us to go beyond a personal, individualistic judgment. How should indeed societys utility be considered? The definition of utility states that it should be considered compared to the part whose interest is concerned. If we consider society as the interested party which might be societys interest? In this philosophy social utility is simple: the sum of all individuals utilities. (As we saw, Rawls position criticizes exactly this simplicity by which utilitarianism simplifies individuals and the general social utility. Which effectively is a fair argument against it). An individualistic approach by which each person maximizes its own utility does not appear to be compatible with collective utility. The way utilitarian philosophers think that it is possible to enforce public interest is trough legislation as a tool, the law should define the principles society wants to respect and the actions which maximize social utility. A well planned legislation will lead to harmonize individual interest to social one by making obedience to laws more convenient than breaking it. This means that the expected utility of committing an action against the law should be lower than the possible advantage to commit a crime. Indeed Bentham tried to find a way to define particularly the penal code, in this way anyone would know the punishment applied for breaking the law which would be leading to a lower utility than respecting it. To give another graphical representation to be compared to the Rawlsian one we can have a look at the following graph: C:Documents and SettingsRoberta SimeoneDesktopUtilità  ut.jpg Again we have our 1 and 2 (individuals) determining social utility, the parallel lines have again a slope of 45 degrees this time turned through 90 degrees. The social utility is on the interception where the two individual ones cross. We can note the fact that even if one has all and the other any (interception between x axis u1 and W1) we still stay on the same social utility: W1. Critical points in utilitarianism Utilitarianism was all but left without critics, already Benthams successor John Stuart Mills (1806-1873) who was the second innovator in utilitarianism started to criticize different approaches and assumption used by Bentham. Indeed Benthams approach used to be focused on the theory by which the public actor should act. Mills on the other hand was focusing more on the personal morality of actions. Compared to Bentham he assumes an approach which is more internal, he tries to focus on the psychology of the agent. Here we find the first critic to utilitarianism; Mills believes utility maximization assumption to be too narrow to explain agents choices. An interesting critique is the one moved by Bernard Williams (1929-2003) it is well explained by an anecdote by Williams himself known as Jim and the Indians: Jim finds himself in the central square of a small South American town. Tied up against the wall are twenty Indians, in front of several armed men in uniform. A heavy man in a sweat-stained khaki shirt turns out to be the captain in charge and () explains that the Indians are a random group of inhabitants who, after recent acts of protest against the government, are just about to be killed to remind other possible protesters of the advantage of not protesting. However, since Jim is an honoured visitor from another land, the captain is happy to offer him a guests privilege of killing one of the prisoners himself. If Jim accepts, then as a special mark of the occasion the other Indians will be let off. Of course, if Jim refuses, there will be no special occasion, and the captain will do what he was about to and kill them all. () The men are against the wall and the other villagers understand the situation and are obviously begging him to accept. What should he do? (B. Williams, A Critique of Utilitarianism in Smart Williams, Utilitarianism: For and Against, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1973) Since utilitarianism only considers the utility of the outcome of an action there is no choice. It is much better in terms of general utility to kill only one person rather than having 19 others been killed. This would simply be better because utilitarianism considers that each one counts for one and only one. What Williams argues is different: that it is not the same consequence if a person is killed by my direct action or if he is killed because of my indirect behavior, which in this case would be an act of not taking participation. Killing actively one person would not preserve our personal moral integrity because indeed we would have killed a human being. This would harm our own personal moral integrity even though it might be a better outcome in terms of social utility. That is the reason why this objection is known as the integrity objection. Rawls critique Rawls position is deeply against utilitarianism, as this philosophy is accepting to give up individual interests for majoritys ones. The utilitarian assumption that individual interest might be given up for society, is criticized even if the sacrifice of someones interest might lead to greater efficiency. For Rawls it is more important to ensure justice before efficiency. It is claimed to be wrong if the majority would get an advantage but the one who has to take the sacrifice is the worst of, and this is unjust. Accordingly, in a just society we have to assume equal citizen rights, which again according to him are an absolute right under any circumstance. The only admissible injustice would be the one which would prevent a worse injustice. The first critical point of utilitarianism he identifies is the fact that it tends to make the individual disappear. Utilitarianism has a very narrowed view of human beings only considering its utility, to the point that once the individual utility is calculated there is no other relevant information concerning the person. This kind of reduction leads utilitarianism to be a philosophy which is indifferent to identity and individuality of people. Further, another critical point is the one concerning distributive justice, utilitarianism tries to maximize the social outcome as a whole, what it still fails to take into account is the distribution of that utility.(As explained by the second graph). If we abstract and consider wealth as utility it does not make a difference it one individual has a lot and most others only a little: the general sum of all the utilities is still maximized. Between two actions, one leading to a utility of six for the first individual and an utility of one for the second, and another leading to three for each ,utilitarianism would choose the first because seven is greater than six. This is because all what matters is the sum of utility, although this leads to profound injustice. Finally he claims that each desire is to be calculated and compared to other desires although they might differ in their nature, what is to be understood as a qualitative versus quantitative difference. Conclusion What Rawls criticized in utilitarianism appears to be right for general principles of social welfare. Utilitarianism has to be awarded with the innovation to apply rationality to moral philosophy. Although it forgets the distribution of wealth problem. This latter one appears to be the most effective critique to utilitarianism. It is undeniable that the utilitarian view of each individual maximizing its own utility as he best believes also implies a higher grade of freedom of choice. This choices should thou be made in a way which is not interfering with social purposes. An action should not only be valued from the utility it brings to the single individual but society as a whole. Because in the end even the single individual is staying in society and thou being influenced from the status quo he stays in. Social welfare is not only profiting the ones who directly gain from it but the whole systems stability. Injustices are the seed of contrasts, the French aristocrats living the French Revolution might agree with this view. Not only is the critique effective but also fair on a moral basis. Society should not be led by individualistic principles, such an assumption would mean to put social morality on the same layer as individual one. But societies emerged from collaboration between individuals to achieve something more. This is the reason why the state should try to be better than individuals particularly concerning morality. On the other had it has to be stated that utilitarianism has the great advantage of being practical and effective to apply. The use of calculation implies an incredible advantage in terms of efficiency in decision-making. Further it is not clear why the two principles of justice should necessarily emerge from the original position, this is basically the critique moved to Rawls by many, among them Amartya Sen. The idea is that other principles might emerge from the choice made under the veil of ignorance.

Computers and Health :: Medicine Biology Technology Essays

Computers and Health Computers can be responsible for a number of diseases, such as: eye strains, wrist injuries, back problems, stomach ulcers or mental collapse. Not so long ago was it thought that computers, which could perform calculations and process data with high speed and complete accuracy, would free up humans to only work 3-4 hours a day. But now, humans are working harder than ever. Stress Stress is often a major sector of work related illness. Simply the though of computers can cause stress in some people. It is also stressful: * To be asked to complete a task, which is new to you and you are not sure that you will be able to cope with it; * To know you have more work to do, than you can finish, in the available time; * To have too little work to do and to be bored all day. The introduction of computers into the workplace can have harmful effects on the well beings of information workers at many different levels in an organisation. For example: * Some companies monitor their employees output. This can often increase stress levels. Symptoms include headaches, sleeplessness and stomach ulcers.) * Many peoples fare afraid of computers and fear that the will not learn new skills, or that their position of seniority will be undermined by computer 'whizz-kids'. * It can be almost impossible for people to get away from office work due to mobile, pagers laptop computers and modems. * 'Information overload' means that managers are often bombarded with more information than they can actually take-in. Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI) These are the disorders affecting the neck, shoulders and upper limbs. It can result in numbness or tingling in the arms and hands, aching and stiffness in the arm, neck and shoulders, and an inability to lift objects. Some sufferers cannot even pour a cup of tea with out experiencing extreme pain. Eyestrain Computer users are prone to eyestrain due to long hours in front of a screen. There is no evidence that a computer can cause permanent damage to eyes, but glare, improper lighting, improper corrected vision and poor work practices all contribute to temporary eyestrain. Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) Radiation In normal day life we are exposed to ELF from sources such as, electricity from the mains, sunshine, fire, earths own magnetic field and computers. Studies have been carried out to investigate if there is a distinct link between miscarriages and ELF emitted by computers. Studies have vaguely showed that long hours spent at a VDU in the first trimester of pregnancy, has played a part in the leading to miscarriages. Computers, Health and the Law 'The Health and Safety Regulations of 1992' reads as follows:

Kobe Bryant Essay -- essays research papers

Could you imagine being nineteen years old and making five million dollars a year? Kobe Bryant, the son of former NBA player Joe "Jellybean" Bryant, jumped directly from high school to the pros in 1996 and enjoyed an impressive rookie season with the Los Angeles Lakers. He also won the Nestle Crunch slam-dunk contest, and was the leading scorer in the Rookie Game during the NBA all-stars Weekend. Kobe Bryant could very well become one of the best basketball players to ever step on a basketball court. Kobe's parents named him after a type of steak (Kobe) seen on a restaurant menu prior to his birth. This type of steak is very popular in Japan. Bryant is also fluent in Italian. Even though Bryant plays in the NBA, he is still a kid at heart and makes time for playing video games. He has two older sisters, Sharia and Shaya. Bryant was the all-time leading scorer in Southeastern Pennsylvania history with 2,883 points, breaking the marks of NBA legend and Hall of Famer Wilt Chamberlain (2,359 points) and former St. Joseph's player Carlin Warley (2,441 points). Bryant led his high school team to a 77-13 record in last three seasons and was a four-year starter. His father, Joe, played eight NBA seasons for the Philadelphia 76ers, San Diego Clippers and Houston Rockets, and is a former assistant coach at La Salle. As a senior at Lower Merion High School, USA Today and Parade Magazine selected Bryant as the National High School Player of the Year. He was also named Naismi...

Leader of my life: my mother Essay

An influential leader in my life is my mother because she exemplifies a godly woman in many ways. She is a whole person. She is a cooperative leader in the home. She also understands and accepts her role, despite cultural trends and pressure. She models authentic spirituality. She is the keeper of intimate feelings. She demonstrates and teaches compassion. She desires to complete duties with her heart. Her strong faith in God is contagious in my life. As a whole person, my mother is beautiful, healthy, and wealthy in God. Her beauty radiates from her modest and humble personality and her tastefully modest clothing style. Her desire for nutrition and personal hygiene is key to her amazing health. She knows her wealth comes from God because he blessed her with a strong Christian husband and three daughters. She gives me a beautiful reminder to remember who I am and whose I am. My mother is also a cooperative leader at home. She understands God’s design for marriage. The love and respect she gives to my father is an example of that leadership. She demonstrates cooperation through building a healthy marriage in partnership with my father. Despite trends and pressure from culture, my mother understands and accepts her role as a godly woman. Growing up, my mother taught me the dominant values of Christianity so I can carry those values into my adult life and be a Christian witness to others. She holds to her values at work as an anatomy professor, and sometimes she gets ridiculed for her faith, but she stands strong. My mother models authentic spirituality daily. She understands what is at stake, and I am willing to do anything to stand up for my faith. She invests time to strengthen her walk with Christ, and has instilled that in me as well. Another leadership quality my mother holds is her ability to never share the feelings, fears, and dreams I express to her. She is an excellent listener and provides me with spiritual advice. I like to think that I am a confidant and can be trusted by those who need a listening ear. Throughout my life, my mother has demonstrated and taught compassion. She is the source of my care, protection, nourishment, and sacrifice. Adopted at birth, my mother has sufficiently provided for me out of love. She guards  me with her life to keep me on the right path. She taught me to love healthy and nutritious food so I can do the same for my children. My mother has also made an abundance of sacrifices to make sure I live by God’s design. Finally, my mother desires lasting results with wisdom, understanding, and knowledge. She utilizes her wisdom by teaching me the ways of life. She rejoices as I apply her teachings in my life and she understands me. The abundance of knowledge my mother has supplied me with continuously fills my life with rare and beautiful treasures. My mother continually molds me into the person God intends. She shares a special partnership with God that nobody can take away from her. My mother is an influential leader in my life as an example of a godly woman. She is pure and whole in the eyes of God. She demonstrates cooperation by understanding and accepting her roles against cultural trends and pressure. She is a model of authentic spirituality, and provides a listening ear. The compassion she beholds is contagious, and she desires to complete duties with her heart. This is how my mother models leadership.

Answer Key for Effective Writing Essay

School purchasers may make copies for use by their staff and students. Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer. 1 198 Madison Avenue New York, NY 10016 USA Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Any websites referred to in this publication are in the public domain and their addresses are provided by Oxford University Press for information only. Oxford University Press disclaims any responsibility for the content. oxford and o xford english are registered trademarks of Oxford University Press Executive Publisher: Janet Aitchison Senior Acquisitions Editor: Pietro Alongi Associate Editor: Scott Allan Wallick Art Director: Maj-Britt Hagsted Production Manager: Shanta Persaud Production Controller: Eve Wong  © Oxford University Press 2007 isbn: 978- 0-19-430884-7 Database right Oxford University Press (maker) Effective Academic Writing 3: Answer Key an engineer . Both my mother and father were born in different countries, so my relatives are scattered all over the world . I really like traveling and have been to Europe and Asia . Although we try to get together for important occasions, this was the first time everyone could attend . Most importantly, my good friends had never met my relatives . Developing good friendships takes a lot of work . Watching them all dancing, laughing, and having a wonderful time will stay in my memory forever . The band we hired played music that the guests loved and we danced for hours .

Marketing funtions

Principles of Marketing Seaworthy College In any type of organization, the internal marketing strategy and end result can greatly affect the outcome of any measured external results. Internal marketing is created and carried out In order to align, motivate and empower all employees on all levels of the business. When employees feel motivated and empowered, what follows is typically positive customer experiences that are truly aligned with the firms' organizational goals. Success in any business starts with the many roles that employees will play, in which each roll affects all others.One role the employee will play is the worker that they are in the environment they are provided. An employer or internal marketer needs to provide a work environment that enables the employee to feel excited and rewarded by their everyday duties. If the employee feels motivated by the excitement or reward, they will strive to Increase their performance. Increased performance, In turn, Increases customer satisfaction. With both employees and customers satisfied, all levels of the organization will then be satisfied. If satisfied, the employees and customers will remain loyal to the organization.Employees will also be more apt to remain loyal if they are aware of any possible challenges and given direction. All of these roles will help evolve and preserve the compass culture, with little culture or low productivity could greatly benefit from internal marketing. Internal marketing is also achieved through quality management training. This is a form of training that will enable the staff to see the cycle between employee relations and producing quality products or services. Communication with employees will increase heir knowledge, which in turn creates greater awareness and allows for the expression of opinion.Along with communication and awareness, incentives can greatly affect attitude, knowledge, and the willingness to offer an opinion. Some incentives available are positive worki ng conditions, salary recognition, and personal growth. Positive internal marketing looks to adjoin departments which will increase harmony and further improve communication. Overall, the main objectives of internal marketing are to keep the internal stakeholders satisfied and motivated. In turn, as an end result, it will keep the external customers satisfied. It will also improve employee relations and core competencies.Core competencies are defined as the strengths and advantages of a business. These competencies allow a company to expand, but should be unique enough where they cannot be replicated. All internal marketing will affect the external outcomes of each business. When the internal strengths are matched with external opportunities, all needs of customers will be met. Therefore, organizations should convert any internal weakness to strengths and all external threats into opportunities. Internal strengths ND weaknesses should be analyzed for insight on accomplishing any int ernal goals.It will also open awareness for advantages in achieving external goals. A review of employees and production will allow someone to spot possible advantages or impediments. A review of the financial ratios should be conducted to compare with other competitors. Possible external opportunities would be gaps in the market where no company is actually serving. This will allow for a new market or growth opportunity. Possible threats would be any competitors or new products. Most successful businesses not only consistently analyze their marketing, but also look to create a customer centered business.This is done by starting with the customers instead of starting with the product. Starting with the customer is creating a business' actions to support sales and staff to meet the specific clients' needs. More simply put, it's putting the customer first. Same positive result. The strategies are based around creating a quality product and correctly responding to complaints and inquir ies. This is achieved through seven steps that are completed at the business level. The first step is to communicate your central philosophy simply but meaningfully. A few short words shouldn't be hard to remember but mean the business.The second step is to elaborate the company's core values. This is a definition of how the customers, employees, and vendors should be treated at all times. The third step is to reinforce your commitment continually. The more often it is stated, the better it will stick. The fourth step is to make it visual. If an employee sees the philosophy and commitment in every day surroundings, it will become second nature. If the customer sees the same, they will begin to realize what the company strives on. The fifth step is to make it a focus during orientation.Orientation is the time where new hires take the key elements of the business away from the table. If it is mentioned in orientation, they will know the importance. The sixth step is to train, support, hire, and enforce. Some employees need to be taught and encouraged to follow new ways of thinking and acting. This will, in turn, generate loyalty and enthusiasm amongst customers. This is typically done through training, learning, coaching, observation, and feedback. The final step is to instill the idea of including the world. It creates the actions of going above and ended. Customer's decisions are based on a five step process.This process consists of problem recognition, information search, alternative evaluation, purchase decision, and post purchase behavior. Interactions with a company can be placed anywhere in steps two through four due to impact factors. These impact factors consist of past experiences, cognitive bias, individual differences, personal relevance, and escalation of commitment. Past results of a product will determine if the product will continue to be purchased. If the result was positive, then the action will be repeated. If the result was negative, then the action will be avoided in the future.Cognitive bias consists of many factors. Belief bias is the overconfidence on prior knowledge. Hindsight bias is when one is ready to explain the inevitable. Omission bias is omitting any info that may be perceived as risky. Confirmation bias is that the customer observes what they expected. Individual differences are based on socioeconomic status, age, and cognitive abilities. The older generation may be more confident in decision making because they have more ability to apply strategy. The socioeconomic status is meaning that some may eve less access to education and resources so they are not informed enough to make a decision.Personal relevance comes from a person feeling that their decision matters. When they feel this way, they are more likely to decide. They want to see the importance of their actions. Escalation of commitment is simply continued loyalty. Decisions, it's time to investigate the effectiveness of the marketing. This is done by various investigation techniques. One way is through search engine optimization. This is the ability to gauge the company's popularity as compared to other companies. It tracks how many times internet users have clicked on the links for the particular site.Another option is through quarterly revenue. This compares revenue against marketing campaigns. This will inform you of what actually makes the product sell. Surveys are a basic way of questioning how people feel. Surveys are done in a variety of ways, but if sent via email, there are certain services that are able to track how many of the sent emails were opened. From that number, they can they track how many went into the website. All of the options for data collection are sent through a marketing decision purport system. This is a system that is used to interpret and evaluate data.